Strategy Outline Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Strategy - Outline Example This development has prompted the company to develop a competitive strategy that can help it create competitive advantages and a sustainable market position (Low & Arain 2010, 15). One of the important approaches towards increasing efficiency in business activities is the use of strategies that reduce a company’s operational costs. This is important since companies can take advantage of the reduction in costs to maximize on the returns from the services and products they sell. Across various businesses in different industries, competitive advantages have often been achieved when firms attain high levels of profits from the activities they engage in. It is important to point out that particular industry structures play a crucial role in determining the amount of profits that business get from their operations (Plunkett & Research, 2010, 47). This is because; the particular forces shaping the industry and the same ones that determine the profits those firms derive from their operations. In the retail industry, like other industries, the particular forces affecting company and business performance include competition, like that which Wm Morrison is facing currently, the bargaining muscle in sellers and buyers of goods and services, as well as availability of complements and substitutes in the products and services being offered in the market(Worthington & Britton 2006, 13). The porters five model is used in making an analysis of the viability of business towards making competitive advantages and market position (Sadler 2003, 32; Grant 2008, 51). Businesses that want to grow and expand are expected to make an environmental planning and analysis on order to align their strategies accordingly. According to the porters five model, Wm Morrison has not received any major threats with the entry of new suppliers in the market. This can be attributed

Final - Project and Program Risk Management Essay Example for Free

Final Project and Program Risk Management Essay This type of management may take on an informal or formal approach, but risk management is essential for every project. Risk Management is not a well accepted standard practice since it points out negative aspects of projects, and there are numerous inhibitions that restrain the dynamics of risk management. According to the Wikipedia, a free web-based encyclopedia, the Project Management Institute (PMI) is a non-profit professional organization with the purpose of advancing the state-of-the-art of project management. The company is a professional association for the project management profession. The PMI sets standards, conducts research, and provides education and professional exchange opportunities designed to strengthen and further establish professionalism. The Project Management Institute, Inc. (PMI() has established a six-step set of processes and practices for the risk management process as documented below: 1. Risk Management Planning: project risk infrastructure is established and a project-specific risk management plan is generated. 2. Risk Identification: events with potentially positive and negative impacts are clearly described. 3. Risk Qualifications: risks are evaluated according to nonnumeric assessment protocols. 4. Risk Quantifications: risks are evaluated according to numeric assessment protocols. 5. Risk Response Planning: strategies to deal with or precluded risks are evaluated and communicated. 6. Risk Monitoring and control: risk management and response plans are put into action. b) Why do professionals mandate Risk Management? Professionals mandate Risk Management in organizations since risk sometimes becomes a secondary issue. This secondary issue occurs since the hope that Project Managers will be able to handle issues and problems as they occur. Since risk remains a secondary issue until an organization’s luck runs out or a profitable opportunity is missed, professionals take a more proactive approach to risk identification and mitigation by applying Risk Management Process and Practices. Based on statistical information, unfavorable risk events eventually occur in good projects without a way to identify and mitigate risk. The Project Manager suffers the repercussions of such type of failure; therefore, professionals mandate Risk Management and support its practices in effort to mitigate risk. . Explain the Delphi Technique and steps for effective application. a) Explain the Delphi Technique. When expert interview techniques are not an option, the Delphi Technique provides an alternate means for extracting information from subject matter experts (SMEs) without pressuring or forcing them to provide much needed information. Many SMEs prefer not to participate in data-gathering processes; therefore, the project manager ( facilitator) applies the Delphi technique to collect information directly from the SMEs without infringing on their schedules. This technique allows the facilitator with directed follow-up capability from experts after peers have been consulted so the highest quality of information is extracted from the experts. b) Steps for Effective Application. To obtain effective information from the Delphi Technique, the Project Manager must posses the ability to generate the original questions to present to the experts and to clarify the information from the experts as it is received. The following six (6) major steps will increase the chances of a successful technique application: 1) Identify experts and ensure their participation 2) Create the Delphi instrument 3) Have the experts respond on the instrument 4) Review and restate the responses 5) Gather the experts’ opinions and repeat 6) Distribute and apply the data The Delphi technique is a time-consuming process, but this technique is promising in extracting information from experts who might not otherwise contribute to a project’s body of knowledge. 3. Explain the Crawford Slip Method (CSM). The Crawford Slip Method (CSM) is a classic tool used to combat the negativism inherent in team members while attempting to identify risk and risk information-gathering for a particular product or process. CSM offers a variety of advantages over other information-gathering techniques, in particular, the ability to aggregate large volumes of information in a very short time period and the complete avoidance of groupthink. CSM is not the hardest risk management technique to apply when properly facilitated. A clearly established question is defined by the facilitator and provided to all qualified participants. The participants then document their response to the clearly established question on a slip of paper. Providing the same clearly established question to the participants again, they document their response to the question on a slip of paper again. This process is repeated ten (10) times using the same clearly established question to better extract all of the unknown information available from the participants involved in the product or process. The initial slips of paper are usually very similar in content; however, as the process repeats itself, the later slips of paper tend to generate identification of issues and risks that could have been overlooked without repetition. The strength of Crawford Slip Method is efficiency. 4. Define SWOT Analysis and their selection criteria. a) Define SWOT Analysis. Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats (SWOT) Analysis Technique is a directed risk analysis that identifies risks and opportunities within a higher-level organizational context rather than a project’s narrow vacuum.

Cosquer Cave :: Anthropology Research Papers

Cosquer Cave Around 27,000 years ago it is believed that large glaciers were spread across the Alps. These glaciers were so large and held such a large quantity of water that the sea level of the Mediterranean dropped some 100 meters. When the opening of the cave was revealed, men entered the cave and drew amazing paintings and drawings along the walls. When the earth became warm again the glaciers melted, and the sea level rose. The cave entrance was once again covered up by 37 meters of water. (Time Travellers†¦) This cave was hidden for thousands of years until 1985, when scuba diver Henri Cosquer discovered the cave entrance. It is some 110 feet below sea level on Cabo Morgiou, which is near Marseille, in the southern part of France. It led him through a 450 feet long sloping tunnel to a large air-filled chamber. When Henri returned in 1991 to the dark chamber, he noticed a handprint on the cave wall. Soon he noticed many handprints. When Henri returned with other explorers, they searched and found artwork and many pictograph and petroglyphs. (Dawn of Prehistoric.) After doing radiocarbon dating, explorers discovered that the first handprint Cosquer found was 27,000 years old. At the time, it was the oldest date for a cave painting known anywhere. With more searching, charcoal was found and dated as being 27,870 to 26,360 years old. The gap in the dating leads explorers to believe that the cave was in disuse during the gap between the dates. (Dawn of Prehistoric†¦) Radiocarbon dating done on the paintings and drawings of the animals has lead prehistorians to believe these works are between 18,500 and 19,000 years old. Of the hundred animal images, horses are nearly one-third of the drawings. Many of the horses only show the heads, while some represent the entire body of the animal. Other animal paintings include ibexes, chamois and some bison. (The Cosquer Cave) A surprise to many of the explorers were the paintings of sea animals. Although sea level was around 360 feet lower then the cave entrance, and the cave entrance was only a couple kilometers from shore. Jean Clottes and Jean Courtin, two prehistorians, said: ‘One of the most delightful surprises of the Cosquer cave was its depiction of sea animals. A few paintings and engravings of saltwater fish are known in Upper Paleolithic cave art, but drawings that look like seals had so far only been recorded in two cave, at La Pileta and at Nerja in Andalusia.

Armenian Genocide Essay -- essays research papers

  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Can you imagine yourself living during the time that WWI was going on? I’m pretty sure you’d be terrified to even walk out of your house. Like it wasn’t bad enough that the whole world was at each other’s throat, but to know that your country may be at the hands of another leader. A leader who may have different perspectives on every day life, with the benefit of doubt that it may be extremely foreign to you, is pretty scary. I’m pretty sure that it would make you or anyone else feel extremely unsafe and uncomfortable. But imagine being unaware of the underlying plan to â€Å"cleanse† your ethnic group. The Armenian people faced this situation during the time of WWI. Life between the Turks (Armenia’s rival) and the Armenians was very complex. Not all Armenians hated the Turks, and not all Turks hated the Armenians. Consequently, the Armenian people were not aware of any forms of annihilation that were being plotted at the time.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  What exactly is the definition of a Genocide According to the World Book Dictionary, genocide means: The systematic extermination or destruction of a political, racial, or cultural group1. When the word genocide is brought up, many people usually think of the Holocaust. Although the Holocaust was a massive tragedy, many don’t recall the Armenian Genocide. The Armenian Genocide was just as terrifying as the Holocaust, and we should commemorate this tragedy. The people who are held responsible for this tragedy are a young group of Turks. Their plan was to exterminate all of the Armenian population. The Turks desired a Turkish State that extended to Central Asia, and thus to carry through the unity of the Turkish speaking people. This creation of such a state would create what they call â€Å"Pan-Turkism†2.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The Armenians had their first taste of aggression by the Turks on April 24, 19153. Three hundred Armenian leaders, writers, thinkers, and professionals in Constantinople were imprisoned in many parts of Turkey without any advanced warning. Shortly after they were imprisoned, they were brutally tortured and beaten by the Turkish authorities. Other methods of brutality included pulling out fingernails, teeth, and beards, branding on the chest with hot horseshoes and raising the feet abo... ...everal facts that backed up my thesis. My sixth grade teacher once told me that a genocide seeks no difference between men and women, between children and adults. That it understands no righteousness and tolerates no principle which invests life with meaning and individuals with rights. The Turks believed it was okay to kill a Armenian and to get away with it. They believed that it was okay to starve them and send them on â€Å"death marches†. They believed it was okay to rape the women, and it was okay to kill the men as well as the children. The Armenians were not humans in their eyes, they were considered animals, or even objects. Mechanically operated robots of some sort, who were expected to walk practically-forever, in the middle of a deserted desert with nothing living within hundreds of miles away. No one to witness the killings. No one to hear their cries for help. No one to come and rescue them. And the Turks are blameworthy. Between 1915-1923, more than one million Armenian lives were taken. It is described as the first genocide in the twentieth century. The people of Armenia suffered prolong despair, devastation, torture, and brutality that will remain in history forever.

Discuss Pinters dramatic presentation of Ruth in The Homecoming

Surrealistically representing the pugilistic life of a pack of ‘Hackney predators', Pinter portrays the mounting conflict within the tribe as each male fights for the Alfa position, with the reward of the lone female, Ruth. Embroidered with elaborately hidden meanings, pregnant pauses and ellipses, this play strips the characters of the outside shell of etiquette and politesse associated with society and left with only language as an attempt to cover the nakedness of their animalistic cores. These characteristics are recognized through the ‘Pinteresque' themes of nameless menace, erotic fantasy, obsession and jealousy, family hatred, and mental disturbance. The plot follows the course of Teddy returning home with his wife, Ruth, and her journey in to ‘take on' the pack and eventually take over the role of Queen Bee. During the course of the drama, she exacts her revenge on Teddy in leaving him for his family of sexually screwed up ‘butchers'. Teddy and Ruth's arrival from America is symbolically representative of Teddy's homecoming after nine years away. He returns married with a ‘Doctorship of Philosophy' and supposedly father of three sons, although later questioned by Max, ‘all yours, Ted?', suggesting Ruth is, as ever, unfaithful and a prostitute. ‘Are you tired?' this passage opens with the estranged couple struggling to find coherence with the blatant discord, ‘No'. Ruth's replies are cold, quasi-monosyllabic and detached, perhaps in an attempt to undermine Teddy's ascension to authority as he blatantly refuses to listen and orders her around: ‘Go to bed. I'll show you the room' shows the reader that ultimately, Ruth's opinions are irrelevant as the subordinate member in a marriage. Like Joey is to Lenny, Teddy sees Ruth as merely an appendage, thus his patronizing condescendence, ‘You can help me with my lectures when we get back'. Teddy's long speeches reveal him as nervous despite his seeming attempts to reassure Ruth : ‘You'll be perfectly all right up there without me.' He uses excessive language to cover his vulnerability in face of the confident and controlling Ruth, whose short, sharp syntax displays her self-assured disposition. Similarly, Max and Lenny, who appear to feel her authority also go off into long, pre-rehearsed monologues, for example Lenny's encounter with ‘a certain lady' ‘with a certain proposal' ‘one night, not too long ago'. Ruth's presence evokes ambiguous emotions within Teddy's family: alternately revered and rebuked, she is perceived as both the absent mother-figure (Jessie) : ‘make the beds', ‘do the cooking', ‘scrub the place out a bit', ‘keep everyone company', and as a sexual object ‘in a dress in pale corded blue silk, heavily encrusted in pearls' and ‘pantaloons in lilac flowered taffeta'. Significantly mentioning the structure of the house, Pinter reminds the reader and the audience of the boneless, spineless family, now that Jessie, ‘the backbone' has died. Teddy, who wants to ‘stay up for a bit' and ‘walk about', provokes sub-textual connotations of the returning male reassuming his dominance as eldest son and marking his territory. However, giving Ruth the house key, having his cigar go out and going to bed prior to Ruth culminates into his eventual emasculation and loss of power among his brothers. Subtextually, Teddy's ‘You†¦need some rest, you know' is ambivalent in expressing Ruth's mental instability, or that Teddy is sending her away for doing something he doesn't approve of. The audience might relate this with ‘she's a very popular woman, she's got lots of friends', once again suggests Ruth's involvement with prostitution as a ‘photographic model for the body'. Stifled in her relationship with a British academic, Ruth's, ‘I think I'll have a breath of air' and ‘just a stroll' suggests she's out and about and ‘on the Game' even before Max and Lenny agree to sponsor her. Quintessentially, Ruth's confrontation with Lenny opens her ascension to power. If language is an attempt to cover nakedness, Ruth's short, direct syntax show her to be in a position of power over Lenny. Not dissimilar to courting males in the animal kingdom trying to hide their vulnerabilities from the females with bright colours or confrontational battles, Max and Lenny use long and decorously embroidered renditions of what have happened previously to appear intelligent and dominating. And yet, Lenny still seeks his absent mother, ‘Do you mind if I hold your hand?'. Psychoanalytically, Pinter portrays the mental decay of his characters as Lenny oscillates between the maternal craving and desire to punish women with ‘a belt in the nose and a couple of turns of the boot.' He expresses his assumed dominance in stating ‘I decided she was', referring to the irrelevance of whether or not the prostitute was diseased, but rather that his word_as a pimp and ‘escort'_is law. Even so, Ruth overrides his authority, threatening, ‘if you take the glass, I'll take you'. Proposals such as ‘sit on my lap' and ‘lie on the floor' have significantly provocative innuendoes, versus the maternal figure naming Lenny, ‘Leonard'. Pinter's intricate depiction of Ruth is her reminiscent, contemplative nature. She cunningly employs frequent ellipses ‘†¦' as a time of careful planning to put the angle of vision on her in a positive light. ‘I†¦move my leg', ‘I wear†¦underwear†¦which moves with me†¦it†¦captures your attention'. Employing this teasing, provocative language register, Ruth enacts a wordy striptease, seducing the men around her and putting herself in the spotlight. She describes America as ‘all rock. And sand', portentous of the ‘arid scimitar' in To the Lighthouse, while the ‘insects' metaphorically refers to her popularity amongst her ‘friends'. ‘once or twice †¦ cold buffet' insinuates Ruth is a high-class prostitute. Contrastingly with Max's diction, Ruth's language register is not full of expletives but rather strategically thought out. She applies legal diction to decide the conditions of her contract with Teddy's family: ‘All aspects of the agreement and conditions of employment would have to be clarified to our mutual satisfaction before we finalized to contract', showing she is able to take care of herself as an individual and will not let the ‘butchers' exploit her. This independence helps her stand out even more prominently than Teddy in all his aloofness, as she rises to position of Queen and orders Lenny , ‘I'd like something to eat', ‘I'd like a drink'. In noting how Lenny does not reject the subordinate role to Ruth, the reader might suspect he enjoys being told what to do by a woman and thus deduce that Pinter's own fantasies play a significant part in the play. He models Ruth on his wife, Vivien, embodying her as both saint and sinner, contrasting maternal and temptress. Biblically, Ruth, symbolic of ‘pity' but also a Moabite widow who left her own people to live with her mother-in-law Naomi. All assets of femininity are sewn into one character, exposing her to the male's sex drive and simultaneous desire for a mother presence. Ultimately, Pinter's presentation of Ruth significantly exposes her as the model female, simultaneously dominate and subordinate, maternal and temptress. Through his pack of Hackney predators, he depicts her as a tool for sexual enjoyment but the eventual Queen Bee with Joey ‘kneeling at her chair' in the final, still-life portrait.

10 Page Term Paper

10 Page Term Paper 10 Page Term Paper 10 Page Term Paper If you are writing a 10 page term paper, you must pay special attention to the quality of information and structure. In particular, you should use headings and subheadings to ensure a better flow of ideas. is a professional and legal site offering custom term paper writing help to students who care about their grades but have no time to write term papers. In addition, we have an absolutely free paper writing blog with numerous tips on writing and pre-written sample term papers. Sample Term Paper on Baby Boom A necessary step in scientific speculation is to specify precisely what is to be explained. At the demographic level, we have explained the baby boom mainly as an increase in the proportion of women having at least two children accompanied by a compression of fertility into a shorter, earlier period of time. (Another way of describing the same phenomenon is in terms of a significant decline in the average age of childbearing.) Being married and having a family (though not a large family) had become the norm during the decade after the war. Bachelorhood, childlessness and having only one child became increasingly unusual. What kinds of social change occurred during this period that might help explain this trend? One persuasive theory proposed by economist Richard Easterlin is that the postwar period witnessed a combination of two basic forces which encouraged optimism and relaxed earlier constraints on marriage and having children: an unprecedented demand for goods and services otherwise known as the postwar economic boom; and an accompanying shortage of labor. This shortage was caused by low birthrates in the twenties and early thirties which reduced the number of job seekers two decades or more later. In former periods, this demand for labor was met by immigration but the restrictive legislation of the twenties had effectively dried up this source of labor. Thus young people in the early 1950's were relatively few in number and were faced with many well-paying job opportunities in a rapidly expanding economy a particularly propitious set of circumstances for encouraging the formation of families. Other factors also contributed to what appeared to be a headlong rush into marriage and childbearing. Credit for home purchases and other consumer goods became widely available. With little investment and long amortization schedules it became possible for masses of people to satisfy home ownership aspirations, to escape the city and to have a better place for the kids to grow up. With little or no down payment required, suburban developments mushroomed and young couples with young children moved in, their homogeneous concentrations undoubtedly reinforcing the norm of fertility. Pregnancy and motherhood no longer signified a withdrawal from social life; on the contrary, pregnancy seemed almost fashionable at the time. In the new child-centered suburban life separated physically and psychologically from the work environment -childlessness was the deviant form of behavior. The pressures for conformity were such that sterility was probably a more socially acceptable justification of chi ldlessness than lack of interest in children. Term Paper Custom Writing If you need professional help with 10 page term paper writing, do not hesitate to use our custom term paper writing assistance at any time. We are open 24/7 and guarantee timely delivery. Our term paper writers are educated and you will be satisfied with the quality level!

Study of economic growth and development China The WritePass Journal

Study of economic growth and development China Introduction: Study of economic growth and development China Introduction:National High-Tech RD (863) Programme in BriefPolicy Context and ImplementationFunding and ImpactConclusionReferencesRelated Introduction: Economists have during recent time associated economic growth to research and development ability of a country. One of such economic models is called the endogenous growth model. According to the endogenous growth model, research and development is a key driver of technological innovations using human resources capital and the existing knowledge (Romer, 1986). This theory goes on to state that innovation is then used to produce goods which will contribute to the permanent increase in the growth rate of output. Innovations that are endogenously created are essential to a sustainable economic growth.   Research Development therefore can be regarded as an engine for the creation new technology and goods. China has a long history of research and development. The ancient China is celebrated for having invented paper, printing, compass and gun powder. China has also made great invention in the agricultural sector as well as in the astronomy (Sevin 1982). From 1946 to 1970, China pursued a socialist agenda with government playing the central role of coordinating all state affairs. Even though China was considered as a low income country during this period, it invested a lot into Research and Development motivated in order to become a world military power. Elite research institutes such as the Chinese Academy of Sciences were created to support the research and development and China rapid progress in nuclear technology, space technology, and genetic engineering in the 1960s and 1970 testifies to the partial success of this system. However as the Soviet Union was suddenly divided in the 1960, this advancement could not be sustained because China was then dependent on the importation of Tec hnology from its main ally the Soviet Union.   Beginning from the period of Chinese economic reform in 1979, Research and Development in China experienced two transitions:   first, from plan to market economy as it moves away from a centrally directed innovation system, secondly, from low income developing country toward Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) industrialised country status as it intensifies its innovation effort and more effectively deploys the ensuing technological gains. According to the comparative measures of RD intensity among countries of OEC from 1991 to 2003, China’s RD intensity rose to 1.4 percent. Beginning from 1980 to 1990, the central government of China in its bid to catch up with other developed countries decided to formulate and finances science and technology programme throughout the countries. Programmes such as the 863 project and the 973 project were designed to promote science and technology capabilities and to catch up with the growing technological and innovation gap between China and the West. Other programmes such as the Torch programme were designed to support local high –tech industries by providing direct government grant and tax incentives to industries. This essay focuses on the Chinese National RD (863) programme. The objective there is to critically examine the programme, evaluate its output and impact and provide recommendation for its future directions (Naughton,2007). National High-Tech RD (863) Programme in Brief The National High-Tech Research and Development Programme also known as the 863 programme came into being on the 3rd March 1986, when four top China scientists addressed a private letter to Deng Xiaoping, the then Leader of the China calling for the establishment of an Elite project devoted to technology that would make china the â€Å"xin jinshu geming† the new technological revolution. Deng Xiaoping agreed and approved the proposal and directed that action must be taking immediately to implement the programme.   The project was then codenamed 863 programme for the year and the month of its birth. The 863 Programme has set as objective to provide funding for technological research and innovation which were of a strategic importance to the economic and social development of China. It was expected that the programme will enable China achieve a technological â€Å"leap frog† especially in areas were China already enjoys a relative advantages and support the implementation of the third phase of china modernisation process. In recent years, the programme has been extended to include the development of key technologies, in agriculture, biology, environmental protection, renewable energy and information technology. Policy Context and Implementation The programme 863 can be described as part of the general reform efforts that begun in 1979. It was important to move the country away from the socialist approach which was more focused in investing in military research which did help improve the Chinese people wellbeing. The Chinese government also believed that a reform of the economy was important as it will enable a rapid economic growth, improvement on technological innovation and fast infrastructure development that will improve the quality of life of Chinese people. The 863 programme was constituted of an emerging China’s high-technology sector, which includes a number of high level government agencies, state-run research institutes, public and a growing private RD investment funds. The programme could be described as an attempt of the government’s openness policy adopted toward international trade and foreign investment by providing investment attraction to foreign investors through tax incentives and co-investment in research.   The project came to being at a time the government needed to find a lasting solution to its energy needs which became high as the volume of industries and the number of imported cars have increase dramatically. According to the New Yorker, by 2001, more than two thousand new cars were bought in China everyday and millions of barrels were imported from outside and depended of its coals to generate more eighty percent of its energy. This phenomenon was rendering China very polluted and the impact of clima te change could undermine China’s future stability. It was therefore for China to develop new technology to find new solution to its energy and pollution management. The central government wanted to focus on the development renewable energy and as a result made available direct significant public funding to research, product development and application of technologies in the renewable sector. The Ministry of Science and Technology is the lead body in charge of developing science and technology strategy, policy and coordinating other government agencies that were involved in the implementation of the project. Other institutions such as the Chinese Academy of science, the Natural foundation Committee and the Academy of Engineering were also playing important roles in the allocation of funding to research institutes. Funding and Impact Data from the Ministry of Science and Technology reveals a continuing growth in the Chinese Expenditure on Research and Development. In 1996 the gross domestic expenditure on RD was 404 million Yuan and by 2006 the figure has increased to 3003 million Yuan.   China currently spends almost 1.5 percent of it of its GDP on research and Development. China’s expenditure on RD can be regarded as high considering the fact that the living standard of living is still low. By comparison the level of expenditure among OECD countries ranges between 2-3 percent. China is the only low and middle country that depicts such intensity on Research and Development expenditure (UNDP 2001). The government of China is the principal provider of funds for the realisation of the programme. Data from figure 2 shows that government funding is around seventy percent of the total fund that the programme attracted in 2006. Other sectors such the Businesses and Foreign Direct Investment also contribute to funding RD. Figure 1. Gross Domestic Expenditure on RD, 1996-2006 Source: Ministry of Science and Technology 2007 Figure 2: GERD by source of funds and sector performance Source:   MOST 2007 Even though it is believed that the 863 programme has immensely contributed to the China’s recent technological and industrial development an examination of the impact is required to justify the large amount of fund pumped in to the programme.   The 863 programme is heavily dependent on government fund. At the beginning of every year the commission in charge of award of grant set it objectives and calls for bid. The government intention is just to fulfil its catch up agenda with the west. Researchers and research institutes that are involved in the programme are therefore under indirect pressure to deliver the set objectives. As a result Research and Development is often riddled with plagiarism, falsification of data and conflict of interest. In 2004, the popular Chinese researcher from Shanghai Jiao tang University, Chen Jin was involved in a fakery scandal after having received more than ten million dollar in grant to produce a Chinese microchip to rival the American Intel . The situation is a rampant one among Chinese academics and researchers and the reason is that because it is public fund that is involved many researchers are afraid of taking risk since failure may be expensive to them and to the government as this may mean waste of fund among public opinions. According to information from the Ministry of Science and Technology, the 863 programme was a successful project as it helps China invent new technology such as the world First man –loading HTS Maglev, the Third Generation Intelligent Robot that can move freely and avoid barriers and able to talk with human within a certain distance and the Atmosphere and Environmental Monitoring Laser just to mention few. Considering the amount of money the Chinese government spend on Research and Development it is not encouraging to say that China high tech export is highly dominated by foreign investment. According to report from OECD, in 2006, China surpassed the European Union, the US and Japan to become the world largest exporter of high-tech. This is mainly due to the relocation of production capacities of multinational enterprises into China. The China technological advancement has little to do with the indigenous High Tech market. Most of the firms producing High Tech goods in China a re mostly foreign companies; China only contributes in labour term (Xing, 2010). The 863 programme in its conception cannot be said to be a programme which has been designed to promote RD in China. The central government plan was to improve the image of China and it is purely the continuity of the socialist agenda. The only change is that, instead of developing military capabilities, the Deng Xiaoping administration decided to focus on economic catch up. All the projects that were executed under the programme cannot be described as things that will contribute to long term economic growth of China. In the infrastructural and construction area, it is a fact that that the programme has helped China to achieve a historical record in road, railways and airline development. Between 2000 and 2005, the road length in China has increased from 250.700 km to about 1, 930,500 km. Also the Railways have experienced a rapid development. China now has double tracked rails of 25, 000km and electrified rail of 20,000 km. The civil airline has also been developed and today China h as become world second largest air transporter after the United States (Liang Chuan, 2008). Some may argue that China needs all these infrastructural development to elevate its status to a developed country. There is even a Chinese old saying which says that â€Å"If you want to be rich, you must first build road†. But the problem is all these constructions are heavily dependent on public fund and no other country spend so much on infrastructure as China does. According to one study it is estimated that China will need to spend around $132 billion ever year from 2006 to 2010 to maintain these constructions. Moreover the central government does not take into account the social cost of all these development projects for the common Chinese people in terms of lost of land and environmental problems.   The speed at which these projects are executed also poses a problem of quality and standard in the construction and engineering process.   In October 1999, the $52 million 0ne h alf mile-long   Zhaona Mountain bridge   which was built over the young river in Ningbo started to has sways and shack a month before its opening date and inspectors discovered cracks caused by engineering and design flaws. So also in the month January of same year 1999, two bridges collapsed in two different places killing 47 people and injuring more than 30 others (Hays 2008). Another core problem with the 863 programme was the incentive packages the central government made available to motivate researchers and RD firms. It is believed that the central government support to RD through the 863 programme has contributed to the rapid rise of China in the patent applications. Data for figure 3 from the Ministry of Science and Technology shows that the total domestic patent applications increased from 383.157 to 470,342 between 2005 and 2006. The design applications increased from 151,587 to 188,027 within the same year. This tremendous achievement can on the one side be attributed to the zeal and hard work of Chinese researchers but on the hand it can be attributed to the incentives made available by the central government. Figure 3 Patent application filed and patents granted by SIPO Source: Ministry of Science and Technology, 2007 The 863 programme put in place incentive packages ranging from tax reduction to several concessions. In a paper published the Economist title â€Å"Innovation in China: Patents yes ideas maybe† it was stated that â€Å"Professors who do are more likely to win tenure. Workers and students who file patents are more likely to earn a hukou (resident permit) to live in a desirable city. For some patents government pays cash bonuses for others it covers the substantial cost of filling. Corporate income tax can be cut down from 25% to 15% for firms that file many patents. They are also more likely to win lucrative government contracts. One could say the patents applications filed did not mean so much to the applicants compared to the gains and interest the application may yield for them. Therefore the quality and originality, patents designs, and inventions were questionable. Closely link to this argument is that fact the 863 programme did not promote the culture of innovation among Chinese researchers and enterprises. The Ministry of Science and Technology which is the principal government agency coordinating the 863 programme stated that one of the key objectives of the programme was to strengthen the innovation capabilities of Chinese researchers and enterprises so that they can become technical bodies that will support the national aspiration of China to achieve socio-economic development. The programme supported some innovative ideas such as the development of an Intelligent Robot, the Coal-fired MHD Power Generation and the Experimental Fast Reactor. Otherwise, most realisations under the 863 programme were heavily dependent on importation of technologies. The programme was following the international high technological development but did not focus on the development of local indigenous technology (Chunliang, 2008). Conclusion The 863 programme has enabled the Chinese government to achieve a considerable economic and industrial advancement. In order to consolidate all these achievement is important that the 863 programme be reformed to rather focus its attentions on promoting indigenous innovative research and development activities which can turn China into technological advanced country. Incentives and motivational elements in the programme for researchers and private investors should also be reviewed as this may put local investors at a competitive advantage over foreign investors and deter them from investing into RD in China. Finally Chinese Government has to enforce the weak intellectual property right regime in existence at the moment. References ROMER, P. (2005) â€Å"Increasing Returns and Long-run Growth† Journal of Political Economy, 94 (5):1002-1037 SAMINI, J. A ALERASOUL, S. M. (2009) â€Å"RD and Economic Growth: New Evidence from Some Developing Countries† Australian Journal of Basic Applied Sciences, 3(4):3464-3469 HU. A G. Jefferson, G. H. (2008) â€Å"Science and Technology in China† China’s Great Economic Transformation. Ed. L . Brandt   and T. Rawski, New York   City, Cambridge University Press NAUGHTON, B. (2007) â€Å"The Chinese   Economic: Transition and Growth, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press PENTAS, P. (2005) â€Å"Natioanl High-Tech Research and Development Program 863: Introduction, Objective and Organisation [Online] ppentas.com/thesis/National_RD_Programm_863.pdf, Accessed on the 17/05/2011 ONOS, E. (2009) â€Å"Green Giant: Beijing’s Crash Program for Clean Energy† The New Yorker [Online] newyorker.com/reporting/2009/12/21/091221fa_fact_osnos, Accessed on the 17/05/2011 XING, Y. (2010) â€Å"Chinas High-Tech Exports Myth and Reality† EAI Background Brief N. 506 [Online] eai.nus.edu.sg/BB506.pdf, Accessed on the17/05/2011

Cadmium Facts - Periodic Table

Cadmium Facts - Periodic Table Cadmium Atomic Number 48 Cadmium Symbol Cd Cadmium Atomic Weight 112.411 Cadmium Discovery Fredrich Stromeyer 1817 (Germany) Electron Configuration [Kr] 4d10 5s2 Word Origin Latin cadmia, Greek kadmeia - ancient name for calamine, zinc carbonate. Cadmium was first discovered by Stromeyer as an impurity in zinc carbonate. Properties admium has a melting point of 320.9Â °C, boiling point of 765Â °C, spcific gravity of 8.65 (20Â °C), and a valence of 2. Cadmium is a blue-white metal soft enough to be easily cut with a knife. Uses Cadmium is used in alloys with low melting points. It is a component of bearing alloys to given them a low coefficient of friction and resistance to fatigue. Most cadium is used for electroplating. It is also used for many types of solder, for NiCd batteries, and to control atomic fission reactions. Cadmium compounds are used for black and white television phosphors and in the green and blue phosphors for color television tubes. Cadmium salts have wide application. Cadmium sulfide is used as a yellow pigment. Cadmium and its compounds are toxic. Sources Cadmium is most commonly found in small quantities associated with zinc ores (e.g., sphalerite ZnS). The mineral greenockite (CdS) is another source of cadmium. Cadmium is obtained as a by-product during treatment of zinc, lead, and copper ores. Element Classification Transition Metal Density (g/cc) 8.65 Melting Point (K) 594.1 Boiling Point (K) 1038 Appearance soft, malleable, blue-white metal Atomic Radius (pm) 154 Atomic Volume (cc/mol) 13.1 Covalent Radius (pm) 148 Ionic Radius 97 (2e) Specific Heat (20Â °C J/g mol) 0.232 Fusion Heat (kJ/mol) 6.11 Evaporation Heat (kJ/mol) 59.1 Debye Temperature (K) 120.00 Pauling Negativity Number 1.69 First Ionizing Energy (kJ/mol) 867.2 Oxidation States 2 Lattice Structure Hexagonal Lattice Constant (Ã…) 2.980 Lattice C/A Ratio 1.886 References: Los Alamos National Laboratory (2001), Crescent Chemical Company (2001), Langes Handbook of Chemistry (1952), CRC Handbook of Chemistry Physics (18th Ed.) Return to the Periodic Table Chemistry Encyclopedia

An argumentation essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

An argumentation - Essay Example But that should not be the case for further advancement in stem cell research. The main opponents of stem cell research do so on the basis of religious beliefs. But medical science has proven that there are other possible sources of stem cells (â€Å"Stem Cell Research Pros and Cons†), it would be unfair and illogical to ban further research into the field based solely upon religious beliefs. That is why our government policy must allow for the development of stem cell research for incurable illnesses in the future, provided that these studies and experiments are not done on human fetuses but rather on: Keeping in mind that these two other sources for stem cells in human beings exists, there is no clear barrier towards the further advancement of medical technology using the stem cell method since it is obvious that the other methods respect the dignity of the human life. Advancement in fertility science for human beings has resulted in two things. An increased ability of the human being to create new life and, the abandonment of over 400,000 embryos in fertilization clinics. (Rowley,† Embyronic Stem Cell Research Does Too Much Good to be Evil Say Janet Rowley). These abandoned embryos still have the power to make a marked contribution to our society even if they do not continue to mature into a viable fetus once their use is reassigned for the promotion of human health as a stem cell research source. Since these embryos were never actually stored in the body of a woman, these cannot be considered to be sources of â€Å"human stem cell†. That is because these are not embryonic stem cells in the essence of the word but rather, plunpotent stem cells, human cells that have been genetically manipulated to not create life but rather offer the life giving properties of human stem cells instead (Rowley,† Embyronic Stem Cell Research Does Too Much Good to be Evil Say Janet Rowley). In order to

Offshoring Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words - 1

Offshoring - Essay Example Offshoring, not only helps reduce the cost of operations of a company, but may also benefit in terms of promotion in overseas markets. For some companies, offshoring of selective company processes may be the solution to their problems; for others total shifting may provide the desired outcome. Whatever the purpose may be, considerable data has accumulated to support the fact that offshoring for some companies has a survival value. Discussion Although offshoring has a number of advantages, there are number of issues that arise due to its very nature. A prominent cause of disruption in business processes can be related to the distance that exists between the control center and operation center. The distance may be in terms of physical or geographical locations or in terms of cultural or social factors. The term used for a team working in geographically dispersed settings is GDT (globally distributed team). It is defined as a team of workers; (Contractor, 2011) Related to the same organ ization Serving a universal purpose and working in an inter-dependent manner Using communication based on technological means Located in different geographical locations around the globe Benefits Generally, the perception is that offshoring countries lose finances to the countries to which services are offshored; this is however contrary to the reality and experts are of the opinion that it is not only the offshoring country that benefits from the process but also the offshored country that gains benefit (Farrell, 2006). It therefore appears mutually rewarding for all the countries that are part of the process. It is perhaps a means of promoting the concept of globalization where every country plays its role for the collective benefit of all. The first and foremost benefit of offshoring is related to financial savings. This is clearly manifested by the fact that the vast majority of offshoring is directed towards third world countries, where labor is considerably cheaper than the so urce country. In addition to the financial savings, the company also benefits from entering the new potential markets of the offshored countries. Since production is often carried out in such countries, the products are easily introduced into the local market which may provide an additional source of income for the company. Using locally produced raw material of low cost, the company is often in a position to not only earn profits from local markets, but also use their own market to earn huge profits. A number of benefits for the destination countries are related to direct investment which is received in return for services offered. These benefits may be in the form of country's growth, technology transfer, job creation and in some cases the firms offering services also benefit from the process of offshoring (OECD, 2007). Although the level of benefit obtained in this regard may vary from case to case; yet the projected benefits give an idea about the possibilities of improvement re lated to offshoring. Dilemma of offshoring Offshoring has affected the lives of a number of people living in the developed countries. To maintain their standard of life they require higher compensation rates as compared to their equally qualified counterparts residing in third world countries. A number of companies of the developed countries are able to get the same services from experts residing in under-developed

240 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

240 - Essay Example George needed his son to aid him construct a new house during the summer. However, due to their strained relationship, Sam makes it his mission not to aid his father with the house’s construction George presents himself badly to his neighbours. For instance, during the first scenes, George is shown peeing into the ocean. Subsequently Alyssa and her mom Coleen see him naked. Consequently, Coleen gets mad or angry and goes to inform him that she (Coleen) does not like it when George pees in front of her daughter. Sam had an inadequate or wanting self-concept and identity. However, George considered himself to be an architectural models fabricator who is excellent at his work. Initially, George and Sam present themselves to other people poorly. Sam for instance is a drug addict who tries to be a male prostitute. This image portrays them negatively to other people. In the movie life house, George, Sam, peter and robin had poor communication skills. As such, they communicated poorly with one another. Undoubtedly, good communication is an essential element for any relationship to be successful. Poor communication led to George and robin breaking up. Additionally, the same element of poor communication led peter and robin to grow apart while Sam despised them all. Therefore, the barriers to communication between George and his Sam were many. First, distance acted as the primary barrier to effective communication. Sam and his father George were separated and lived in different areas. For instance, Sam lived with his mother and stepfather while his father lived alone. Distance made them to communicate or interact less often. Secondly, attitudinal barriers prevented Sam form interacting with his father. Attitudinal barriers are as a result of the receiver of the message letting his or her attitude get in the way of the message (Bolton 2009). Attitud inal barriers can also be simply explained as an unwillingness to communicate. For instance, Sam

United Nations and Human Ritghs Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

United Nations and Human Ritghs - Research Paper Example The purpose of establishing this organization by Kofi Annan is "Preventing conflicts so that we can live in a world free of fear." (Role of United Nations) United Nation is playing a great role in tackling the catastrophes and mass murders that are taking place all around the world. The role of United Nations has however been criticized by many individuals in certain instances. It is believed that they have not fully come up to fulfill the roles that were assigned to the organization when it came into existence. These nations which had joined hands together initially decided to take organizations which had hold internationally to help them out on certain matters concerning welfare. Through this effort various agencies which specialized in various areas were established. In the year 1865 the ' International Telecommunication Union' which was initially the 'International telegraph union' was formed. Apart from that the 'universal postal union' also came into existence in the year 1874. (History of United Nations) A conference was organized in The Hague in the year 1899 in order to discuss and draft their stance on how to settle problems peacefully and to overcome prevailing crisis. The reason behind this conference was to prevent wars and to generate the basic rules that governed warfare. The major achievement of this conference was that it developed the 'Permanent Court of Arbitration' which started to function in the year 1902. This court was majorly influenced by the 'Pacific Settlement of International Disputes'. The United Nation takes its existence from the League of Nations which was established during the First World War to overcome the massacre that took place. This organization was not successful and therefore was dissolved. It was also formed with the purpose of maintaining peace and security as well as to establish cooperation internationally. This organization that is the United Nations was established in the year 1945 on 24th of October. This organi zation was formed by the consent of veto powers such as China, United Kingdom, United States of America, Soviet Union and other member countries who signed the resolution. Every year the 'United Nations Day' is celebrated on 24 of October. After this organization was established it was realized that a code of conduct needs to be derived so that the rights of human beings remains protected and no human is a victim of ill treatment what so ever. Therefore realizing this United Nations developed a charter which contained the basic rights which are the inborn right of each and every individual of the signatories as well as the countries that come under their jurisdiction. This law was formerly known as the 'The Universal Declaration of Human Rights'. This declaration was passed so that the wrong that was being done to humans previously like they were being deprived of their basic necessities. Power was being exercised unjustly; slavery was at its peak. Considering all these circumstance s where human beings were being treated worse than animals then it was realized that certain initiates need to be taken that would protect the sovereignty and dignity of individuals and no individual would have the right to oppress any human irrespective of power, position etc. In simpler words this organization was established with the following motto, "Whereas recognition of the inherent dignity and of the equal and inalienable rights of all members of the human

Is Hate Speech in the Media Directly Affecting our Culture (responses) Assignment

Is Hate Speech in the Media Directly Affecting our Culture (responses) - Assignment Example Henry is of the opinion that the kind of culture portrayed in the media makes human being lose their sense of humanity. By watching violent behaviour on television children tend to adopt what they have seen in the media. Societal degradation is rife and rising in the name of entertainment and glorification of America. People no longer care about each other and the poor and homeless are considered lazy. In his response he states that ‘†¦ many groups who are considered marginal because they are poor, unemployed, people of color, elderly or young have not just been excluded from the American dream but have become utterly redundant and disposable waste products of a society that no longer considers them of any value’. He adds that suffering and violence is applauded and recognized in holly wood. The homeless and poor are seen as a burden to the state and instead of having compassion for the homeless, homelessness is considered a crime. He adds that sleeping, sitting, soliciting lying down or loitering in public places is considered a criminal

United Nations and Human Ritghs Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

United Nations and Human Ritghs - Research Paper Example The purpose of establishing this organization by Kofi Annan is "Preventing conflicts so that we can live in a world free of fear." (Role of United Nations) United Nation is playing a great role in tackling the catastrophes and mass murders that are taking place all around the world. The role of United Nations has however been criticized by many individuals in certain instances. It is believed that they have not fully come up to fulfill the roles that were assigned to the organization when it came into existence. These nations which had joined hands together initially decided to take organizations which had hold internationally to help them out on certain matters concerning welfare. Through this effort various agencies which specialized in various areas were established. In the year 1865 the ' International Telecommunication Union' which was initially the 'International telegraph union' was formed. Apart from that the 'universal postal union' also came into existence in the year 1874. (History of United Nations) A conference was organized in The Hague in the year 1899 in order to discuss and draft their stance on how to settle problems peacefully and to overcome prevailing crisis. The reason behind this conference was to prevent wars and to generate the basic rules that governed warfare. The major achievement of this conference was that it developed the 'Permanent Court of Arbitration' which started to function in the year 1902. This court was majorly influenced by the 'Pacific Settlement of International Disputes'. The United Nation takes its existence from the League of Nations which was established during the First World War to overcome the massacre that took place. This organization was not successful and therefore was dissolved. It was also formed with the purpose of maintaining peace and security as well as to establish cooperation internationally. This organization that is the United Nations was established in the year 1945 on 24th of October. This organi zation was formed by the consent of veto powers such as China, United Kingdom, United States of America, Soviet Union and other member countries who signed the resolution. Every year the 'United Nations Day' is celebrated on 24 of October. After this organization was established it was realized that a code of conduct needs to be derived so that the rights of human beings remains protected and no human is a victim of ill treatment what so ever. Therefore realizing this United Nations developed a charter which contained the basic rights which are the inborn right of each and every individual of the signatories as well as the countries that come under their jurisdiction. This law was formerly known as the 'The Universal Declaration of Human Rights'. This declaration was passed so that the wrong that was being done to humans previously like they were being deprived of their basic necessities. Power was being exercised unjustly; slavery was at its peak. Considering all these circumstance s where human beings were being treated worse than animals then it was realized that certain initiates need to be taken that would protect the sovereignty and dignity of individuals and no individual would have the right to oppress any human irrespective of power, position etc. In simpler words this organization was established with the following motto, "Whereas recognition of the inherent dignity and of the equal and inalienable rights of all members of the human

Economical crisis facing the banking Industry Essay

Economical crisis facing the banking Industry - Essay Example However, some revenue comes from banking charges among other sources. The banking sector has developed due to some favorable factors like increase in population, hence customers, Good interest rates as stipulated by the central bank, improved security, advanced banking technologies and increase in banking professionals among other factors (Morr 2009). However, the same sector is compromised by some economic factors like the global financial crisis, increased unemployment rates and unstable interest rates among other factors. This work focuses on some of the economic crisis facing the banking industry. Different types of banking have different economical challenges. This work will consider both the retail and the mobile banking systems. The financial crisis is one of the major limitations facing the banking industry. It is defined as a situation where a certain banking institution in not in a capacity to run its operations due to lack of sufficient funds. Financial crises come in diff erent forms, for instance, currency crises, where there is insufficient currency in a certain nation (Angelides 2011). Here the banking institutions are forced to operate in different currencies which might be expensive in the long run. Bank crisis on the other hand applies if a certain bank has insufficient funds to lend its customers and pay its employees among other statutory obligations. Then there is the twin crisis which is a combination of currency and bank crises. Currency crises may result from unfavorable internal or external factors. A calamity or disaster like war and earthquake is likely to limit internal business operations which may lead to fall of economy in that nation. The country will have to pay more for its imports and this could lead to reduced currency. Cutting ties with super power nations like U.S may also compromise the strength of a certain currency. Bank crises on the other hand, are subject of both micro and macroeconomic elements. A bank is likely to la ck sufficient funds to perform its obligations due to bankruptcy, business merges; this is a scenario where a bank loses its business control on forming partnership with another business entity, or nationalizing the entire banking sector or a section. Global financial crisis left some huge France and U.S banks with suspended bonds due to incapability to do the valuations due to the frozen market. The banking default levels increased and this hiked the interest rates by an estimate of 5%. Global financial crisis (2007) limited the operations of the banking sector. The U.S legislators through President George W. Bush authorized financial institutions to provide some unsecured loans to the U.S citizens who wished to construct their own residential facilities. The problem arose when the citizens or real estate sectors failed to repay the loans (loan defaulters). The crisis affected the banking sector on a global scale. Although the government directed some state funds to settle the loan s, the financial facilities adopted some strategies to recover such loans. The central bank hiked interest rates for more revenues (Proctor 2000). This had some negative implications with the banking customers. Several agencies and businesses stopped operations waiting the interest rates to fall. Some opted to seek financial assistances from a micro - finance industry whose interest rates were not greatly affected. The crisis made some financial institutions close their operations for the lack of adequate finances. The banks had insufficient funds to loan its customers and even pay the employees. President Bush ordered for a committee comprising chief economists and financial managers to suggest for

John F. Kennedy’s Inaugural Address Essay Example for Free

John F. Kennedy’s Inaugural Address Essay John F. Kennedy’s Inaugural Address The Inaugural Address, by John F. Kennedy is about the people cooperating to make America a better place for everyone. John F. Kennedy’s speech was delivered in the east side of the capitol on January 20, 1961. In John F. Kennedy’s inaugural address, he emphasizes the need for unity among mankind. John F. Kennedy utilizes anaphora to evoke togetherness throughout the world. Throughout his speech, Kennedy repeats, â€Å"we pledge† several times. Kennedy means to convey unity by using â€Å"we† to connect to the people. Because the phrase is repeated so many times it shows how bad he wants the idea grasped in to the peoples minds. By using the word â€Å"pledge† he is able to emphasize the promise that the people made to America. Kennedy also reiterates the phrase, â€Å" we shall† many times. Through the phrase â€Å"we shall† he is able to highlight that everyone is going to help. It makes the people see that they have a part in constructing America, for Kennedy cannot do it on his own. He wants to build a unity where everyone is on the same team; together they will help each other out and strive for the unity of America. Kennedy wants to be on the same side as the people; he constantly say’s â€Å"let both sides† so that he can come into an agreement with them. If Kennedy makes a connection with the people they will do as he says. He wants â€Å"both sides† to collaborate with each other to create a strong nation. If he were able to create a unified nation, the people would live in a civilized manner, all-willing to help. Through anaphora, Kennedy is able to present the theme that together you can conquer all.

Using Thin Layer Chromatography To Monitor Reactions Environmental Sciences Essay

Using Thin Layer Chromatography To Monitor Reactions Environmental Sciences Essay Thin layer chromatography (TLC) is a very useful technique for monitoring reactions. It can also be used to determine the proper solvent system for performing separations using column chromatography. TLC stationary phases are usually alumina or silica. They are polar for standard experiments or non-polar for reverse phase chromatography. The mobile phase is a solvent whose polarity is chosen by the person conducting the experiment. In most laboratory work standard phase silica plates are used. Different compounds will travel different distances up the plate depending on the polarity of the components of the mixture. The more polar compounds will be more attracted to the polar silica gel and travel shorter distances on the plate. Mon-polar substances will spend more time in the mobile phase and as a result will travel larger distances on the plate. The measure of the distance a compound travels is called the retention factor (Rf ) value. The retention factor, or Rf, is defined as the distance traveled by the compound divided by the distance traveled by the solvent. For example, if a compound travels 2.1 cm and the solvent front travels 2.8 cm, the Rf is 0.75: The Rf for a compound is a constant from one experiment to the next only if the chromatography conditions below are also constant: solvent system adsorbent thickness of the adsorbent amount of material spotted temperature Since these factors are difficult to keep constant from experiment to experiment, relative Rf values are generally considered. Relative Rf means that the values are reported relative to a standard, or it means that you compare the Rf values of compounds run on the same plate at the same time. 1.1 Thin Layer Chromatography There have been a numbered of important milestones in the evolution of chromatography in the last 100 years. Each of these milestones has signalled the start of an important branch of chromatography. Some examples of these are; partition chromatography (1941), gas chromatography (1951-1952), high performance liquid chromatography (mid- 1960s), capillary electrophoresis (1980) and capillary electrochromatography (past decade). In all the chromatographic techniques mentioned, separation is carried out in a column. However, it is also possible to carry out separations on a planar surface. Two examples of this are paper chromatography (1944) and thin-layer chromatography (1937-1938). Thin-layer chromatography (TLC) replaced paper chromatography as the most popular, routine chromatographic technique. TLC was first used in 1937 to 1938 by Nikolai A. Izmailov and Maria S. Shraiber at the Institute of Experimental Pharmacy of the State University of Kharkov. At the time Izmailov was the head of the institute and Shraiber was his graduate student. They were searching for a method for the rapid analysis of galenic pharmaceutical preparations (plant extracts). As classical column chromatography would have taken too much time they felt that if the absorbent would be prepared in the form of a thin-layer on a glass plate. They believed that it would behave like a column but the characterization time would be much shorter. They coated microscope slides with a suspension of various adsorbents (calcium, magnesium and aluminium oxides). They deposited one drop of the sample solution on this layer and added one drop of the same solvent used in a column to develop separation. The test was a success as the separated sample components appeared as concentric rings that fluoresced in various colour s under a UV lamp. They showed that the sequence of the concentric multicoloured rings on the plate would have been identical to the sequence of coloured rings obtained on a normal chromatographic column. They called this technique spot chromatography and the result on the microscope slides ultrachromatograms. The paper on this experiment was published in a Russian pharmaceutical journal that was practically unknown outside the then Soviet Union. Its abstract was included in a Russian review journal and through it in chemical Abstracts. It was then read by M. OL. Crowe of the New York State Department of Health. He then adapted the technique for his own use. Crowe prepared the adsorbent layer in a Petri dish, added a drop of the sample solution in the centre and then added the developing solvent dropwise until sufficient separation was obtained. In 1947 T.I. Williams described a further improvement of the method of Izmailov and Shraiber in his textbook on chromatography. He prepared the adsorbent-coated glass plates in the form of a sandwich. The adsorbent layer was covered by 2 glass plates and had a small hole which the sample drops could be applied through. Meinhard and Hall made the next major step in the development of TLC at the University of Wisconsin. They used corn starch, which acted as a binder, to hold the coating on the glass plate and added a small amount of Celite powder to the adsorbent particles to improve the consistency of the layer. They called this surface chromatography. They used it to separate inorganic ions. Modern TLC started 50 years ago with the work Department of Agriculture Fruit and Vegetable laboratory in Southern California. He investigated the flavour components of the juices of citrus fruits. However, he stated that very large volumes had to be processed because the amount of flavour material was extremely small. Another problem was in finding an analytical method for the investigation of the juice concentrate composition. He followed the method of Meinhard and Hall that he read in Chemical Abstracts. However, instead of adding just a drop of the developing solvent he developed the plates as in paper chromatography. The plates were developed in a closed chamber and one side was dipped into the solvent. The solvent then ascended through the plate by capillary action. It carried with it the sample components and they were separated as a result. The experiments carried out were published and are considered the start of modern TLC. Egon Stahl was responsible for TLC becoming a universally accepted technique. He was also the first to use the term thin-layer chromatography to characterize the technique. This choice of name was almost immediately accepted. Stahl investigated various essential oils and obtained good results using adsorbent-coated glass plates. However, neither the method nor the adsorbent to be used had been optimized. Also, the adsorbents had to be modified and treated before they could be used for the coating of plates. Stahl started investigating the operational parameters and the adsorbent preparations. In the spring of 1958 his efforts were fulfilled as the necessary basic instrumentation, made by Desaga and silica gel G according to Stahl for TLC, made by E. Merck were both introduced at the international Achema exhibition of chemical equipment in Frankfurt. Stahl also published an article outlining the use of the system and a wide range of applications. Because of this standardized method TLC became a widely used laboratory technique. He also went on to publish a TLC handbook in 1962. Although TLC had a wide application it was still thought to be a qualitative technique for the analysis of simple mixtures. As a result advances were directed toward improving the technique. Instrumentation which permitted more precise spotting of the sample onto the plates and the quantitative evaluation of the separated spots was developed. Faster analysis and higher separation power was also achieved. As a result of the higher performance ability the name was change to high-performance TLC (HPTLC) by R.E. Kaiser, who was instrumental in its development. The particle size and range of the adsorbent was the main difference between TLC and HPTLC. The silica gel for TLC had broad particle sizes of 10-60 µm with an average of 20 µm whereas HPTLC has an average of only 5 µm. the HPTLC plates were also smaller in comparison with TLC plates, 10 x 10cm and 20 x 20cm respectively. The improved method and design allowed reduction in the diameter of the starting spots. These improvements lowered the analysis time and increased the efficiency. Problems arose with flow rate which Kaiser overcame by applying pressure to the TLC plate. This in turn led to forced-flow TLC. Due to the constant condensation-evaporation process associated with developing TLC plates in developing chambers problems can be encountered because of the changing velocity of the mobile phase. To overcome this forced-flow TLC (FFTLC) was developed by Tyihà ¡k, Mincsovics and Kalà ¡sz. In this method the spotted plates (dry) are placed into a pressurized development chamber. The stationary-phase layer is tightly covered and sealed on its side by an elastic membrane and pressurized by an inert gas or water filling up the cushion above the layer. The mobile phase is delivered via a pump at a constant velocity through a slit in the membrane to the stationary phase. There are various configurations which can be handled using this method. TLC is a very simple technique. As a result very little instrumentation is needed. Application of samples to the stationary-phase is carried out using a micropipette or syringe. The developing chambers are simple glass structures. Detection is carried out by visual inspection or made visible by spraying the plate with reagent. Also, a wide variety of precoated plates are available so coating equipment isnt needed. In more advanced systems the samples may be spotted by automated loading devices (dosimeters). This allows the application of small and uniform sample spots. More sophisticated developing chambers are also available (FFTLC). The plates can be scanned by densitometers and quantitatively analysed using absorbance or fluorescence measurements. Chromatograms with peaks of the individual separated spots recorded against the length of the plate are produced with such analyses. Their area is also a proportion to the amount present. More complex systems can also be created by combining TLC systems with other systems such as mass spectrometry and Fourier transform infrared. 1.2 Ink Analysis Ink analysis is a very important forensic procedure. It can reveal useful information about questioned document. Modern inks contain many substances which are aimed at improving the ink. The most important component of the ink is the colouring material. It comes in the form of a dye, pigment or a combination of both. Dyes are soluble in the liquid body of the ink, also known as the vehicle. Pigments are finely ground multi-molecular granules that are insoluble in the vehicle. The vehicles composition affects the flowing and drying characteristics of the ink and can consist of oils, solvents and resins. 1.3 Chromatography Studies Djozan et al developed a new and fast method for the differentiation of inks on a questioned document. They designed specific image analysis software for evaluating thin layer chromatograms. They sampled forty-one blue ballpoint pens which were purchased from their local markets in Iran (Table 1). They first wrote a circle of diameter 5 mm uniformly by pen on a paper. One fourth of this was then punched out for extraction. They carried out extraction in 1 ml glass tubes and added 0.1 ml of methanol. This was then vigorously shaken for 1 min. the ink component was then fully dissolved in methanol. The supernatant methanoic solutions were then used to spot the TLC plates. A blank sample of paper with equal dimensions was also treated in the same way. Table 1. List of blue ballpoint pens studied List of blue ballpoint pens studied 1 Cello pyramid 0.7 mm fine TC ball 2 OBA 3 AIHAO 4 Bic 01 5 Cenator 6 PARKER 7 A.T.CROSS FINE 8 Pelikan STICK 918 9 Marvy SB-10 1.0 mm 10 Bic 02 11 PIANO crystal 12 My pen 2001 PENS High Quality Bluce CE 13 AIBA 14 STAEDTLER Stick 430M A IRAN 15 Reynolds Medium 048 France 16 EIFEL Elegance 17 CASPIAN STICK 2001 M 18 STABILO liner 308 19 FABER-CASTELL 1.0 mm Medium (transparent) 20 BIC 08 21 Bocheng A-100 22 SCHNEIDER TOPS 505 M Germany 23 FIBER-CASTELL 1.0 mm Medium 24 MILAN PI 1 mm 25 Reform 26 PAPER = MATE FLEXGRIP ultra MED 27 PARKER UK 28 CANDID-DINI 2853 29 STABILO-galaxy 818 M 30 No name 31 No name 32 Zebra Rubber 101 33 SANFORD SAGA 34 Bensia 35 Girls 36 EUROPEN 37 PARS swiss Refill 606 38 STAEDTLER stick 430 M TBRITAIN 39 Lus HF 500 40 No name 41 STABILO bill 508 TLC analysis was carried out on Merck (Darmstadt, Germany) 20 cm x 20 cm silica gel 60 TLC plates without fluorescent indicator. The plates were activated at 60  °C for 20 min and immediately spotted after cooling in a desiccator. The plates were developed in a developing chamber. The mobile phase used was: ethyl acetate/ absolute ethanol/ distilled water (70:35:30, v/v/v). Chromatographic development of the plates was carried out at room temperature for 40 min. All mobile phases were prepared daily with analytical grade chemicals. Enough was prepared to supply the tank for each run. The plates were air-dried after development. The separated compounds were visible on the plate by their natural colour and the plates were scanned into a computer using an office scanner. An IBM compatible PC (Pentium IV) with a 2.6 GHz microprocessor, 256 MB random access memory (RAM) and a hard disk with 40 GB capacity for external storage was used for processing the colour images. The computer was equipped with an on-board graphic card (NviDiA Geforce 7300LE) and a scanner (CanoScan 4200F) was connected to the computer for scanning (300 dpi) TLC plates as digital images. The images were saved as bmp files. Matlab (Version 6.5, The Math Works, Inc.) was used to write a new program to process the previously saved images. Previous studies indicated that Pyridine is the solvent used with ballpoint pen inks. Djozan et al preformed extraction with different solvents using various extraction modes. These modes were immersion of paper into solvent and simple agitation for 1 min, ultra-sound assisted extraction and micro-wave assistance extraction. The results showed that the immersion of paper into methanol or pyridine and simple agitation resulted in complete extraction of the inks from paper (Table 2). Table 2. List of solvents used for extraction of ink components from paper Solvent Solubility of ink colours Ethyl acetate Ethanol Acetic acid Acetone Butanol 1,2-Dichloroethane Butyl acetate Tetrachloroethane Acetyl acetate Cyclohexane Methanol Pyridine Slightly Slightly Slightly Slightly Slightly Slightly Slightly Slightly Slightly Slightly Soluble Soluble No improvement was found using ultra-sound or micro-wave assisted extraction. Methanol was chosen as the extraction solvent due to the safety of the solvent. The selection of the plate was down to the fact that silica gel plates provided the best resolution of dye spots. They selected five mobile phases (Table 3) and found that ethyl acetate/ absolute ethanol/ distilled water (70:35:30, v/v/v) was effective in separating nearly all the dye mixtures. The spot capacity obtained was more than 15. Table 3. Different solvent systems used to develop plate Solvent System Ratio Spot capacity Butanol:ethanol:H2O Ethyl acetate:cyclohexane:methanol:NH3 Ethyl acetate:Butanol:NH3 Ethyl acetate:ethanol:H2O Toluene:acetone:ethanol:NH3 50:15:10 70:15:10:5 60:35:5 70:35:30 30:60:7:2 9 5 10 15 5 Fig. 1. Typical TLC results of 10 different ink samples (Djozan et al, 2008) Fig. 1. shows a typical chromatogram that they achieved in their experiment. To confirm complete separation of all components in the studied sample, two-dimensional (2D) TLC was carried out using various solvent systems. The results proved that the one-dimensional (1D) TLC is able to provide sufficient separation. The first stage carried out was colour image normalization. A function of the input images was computed that is invariant to confounding scene properties but was discriminative with respect to desired scene information. The calculation is as follows: Stage 2 is to compute a colour image profile. The intensity profile of an image is the set intensity values taken from regularly spaced points along a line segment in an image the intensity values are interpolated for points that dont fall on the centre pixel they computed an intensity profile for r, g and b images along the line passing through the centre of the image on the chromatographic development straight of each ink spot. Fig. 2. RGB characteristic of an ink after TLC (Djozan et al, 2008) In stage 3 the colour image profiles were correlated. The intensity profiles were considered as sequences and the normalized cross-correlation of sequences were computed. Cross-correlation is a measure of similarity of two signals. It is used to find features in an unknown signal and compared to a known signal. It is calculated as follows for discrete functions: Eq. (1) For image-processing applications in which the brightness of the images can be due to lighting and exposure conditions, the images can be first normalized. It is calculated as follows: Eq. (2) Stage 4 involved computing image similarity. The weighted mean of and were computed as follows: Eq. (3) The ability of the method to differentiate between various blue ballpoint pens was evaluated by comparing the similarity of different inks according to Eq. (3). Fig. 3. Screen shot of Matlab software running (Djozan et al, 2008) Fig. 4. All possible combination of comparing inks with TLC-IA (Djozan et al, 2008) In 2006 Liu et al published a paper on the classification of black gel pen inks by ion-pairing high-performance liquid chromatography. They stated that black gel inks usually contain several dye components. These components all have different colours and are mixed together proportionally to give the black colour. They used reverse-phase ion-pairing high performance chromatography (RP-IP-HPLC). It was done in such a manner as the dyes couldnt be reversed on the C18 column due to their high polarities. The maximum UV absorption bands of the black gel pen inks obtained were between 500 and 700 nm. The wavelength of the detector was set to 580 nm as most of the dyes had a maximum UV adsorption near 580 nm. They investigated the influence of both volatile and non-volatile ion-pairing reagents on the HPLC analysis of black gel pen ink dyes. All the reagents had different alkyl chain, ammonium acetate, triethylamine (TEA), tributylamine (TBA), dihexylamine (DHA) and tetrabutylammonium bromide (TBABr). The results revealed that the dyes were nearly not retained using ammonium acetate or TEA as the ion-pairing reagent. Using TBABr, TBA and DHA as the ion-pairing reagent, individually, the dyes were separated. TBABr was selected as the ion-pairing reagent as the retention times were shorter than the others and sharper peaks were obtained. They also investigated the buffer solution concentrations and the effect of pH on the separation. The optimum result was: 40 mmol/L TBABr buffer solution (pH 7) with acetonitrile as the organic modifier for IP-HPLC analysis and an identical proportion of the buffer and acetonitrile (v/v = 40:60) at a flow rate of 1.0 mL/min. these optimum conditions were used to separate 50 dye-based black gel pen inks by IP-HPLC. Liu et al carried out another study on ion-pairing HPLC in 2006. This time, however, they studied the degradation of blue gel pen dyes and also used electrospray tandem mass spectrometry. They used ion-pairing reversed phase liquid chromatography as the inorganic compounds they were analysing have weak retention on the ordinary reversed stationary phases when separating on HPLC. This is due to their high polarities. The UV detector was set at 580 nm for the analysis as most dyes have a normal maximum absorption near 580 nm. The UV absorptions of the fluorescence whitening reagents in paper are usually below 500 nm and they had no interference for the detection of the gel pen dyes at 580 nm. Fig. 5. Chromatograms of blue gel pen inks using different ion pairing reagents (Liu et al, 2006) The tested various mobile phases: eluent A: eluent B (acetonitrile) = 50:50 (v/v); eluent A was the buffer of ion pairing reagent with concentration of 40 mmol Là ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬â„¢1 (pH 7.0), and the ion pairing reagent was (a) ammonium acetate, (b) TEA acetate, (d) TBA acetate, (e) DHA acetate and (f) TBABr, respectively. (c) Ammonium carbonate as eluent A (40 mmol Là ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬â„¢1, pH 9.5) and eluent A:eluent B (acetonitrile) = 50:50 (v/v). they found that 10 mmol-1 TBA acetate (pH 7.0) was suitable ion-pairing agent for the purpose and ink samples stored in different conditions were analyzed by IP-HPLC. Significant changes of ink composition were observed. The noticed that the natural aged inks had the similar but weaker degradation trend than the light aged inks. They used HPLC-MS/MS with ammonium carbonate as ion-pairing reagent to obtain the information of the light aged inks and their photodegradation mechanism. In 1994, Varshney et al analysed ink from typed script of electronic typewriters by HPTLC. They used script from seven electronic typewriters. They used the resultant Rf values and in-situ visible spectra of each resolved band of all the chromatograms indicated that the same chemical composition is being used in six typewriter ribbon inks. However, the seventh one is completely different. Fig. 6. Wavelength maxima values of in-situ visible spectrum bands of electronic typewriter scripts (Varshney et al, 1994) Fig. 6. shows the densitograms obtained after scanning and integration of the chromatograms of tracks of individual typewriters and blank paper. The seven electronic typewriter inks could be categorised into two groups after analysis. The first group resolved the sample to four bands including the base. The second group did not resolve the samples at all with the solvent systems used. Several varieties of blue ballpoint pen inks were analysed by HPLC and IR spectroscopy by Kher et al in 2006. The chromatographic data extracted at four wavelengths (254, 279, 370 and 400 nm) was analyzed individually and at a combination of these wavelengths by the soft independent modeling of class analogies (SIMCA) technique. They used principal components analysis (PCA) to estimate the separation between the pen samples. Linear discriminant analysis (LDA) measured the probability with which an observation could be assigned to a pen class. The best resolution was obtained by HPLC using data from all four wavelengths together, differentiating 96.4% pen pairs successfully using PCA and 97.9% pen samples by LDA. PCA separated 60.7% of the pen pairs and LDA provided a correct classification of 62.5% of the pens analyzed by IR. They stated that HPLC coupled with chemometrics provided a better discrimination of ballpoint pen inks compared to IR. Kher et al effectively combined LDA and PCA to classify the HPLC and IR data. PCA gives a general idea of how different a given pair of pens is, whereas LDA can quantify the predictive ability of a generated classification model. The two techniques of PCA and LDA were shown to be complimentary to each other. The PCA and LDA results indicated that although IR cannot differentiate between all classes of pen inks, it can still provide a reasonable discrimination, which can be enhanced further by improving the quality of the spectra. The analysis of such an enhanced IR data with chemometric analyses would provide a valuable non-destructive tool for forensic analyses. Raman Spectroscopy Studies Mazzella and Buzini used Raman spectroscopy to analyse blue gel pen inks in 2004. They sampled 55 blue gel pens. They first separated them into two groups using a preliminary solubility test in methanol. They discovered that 36 were pigmented inks, which arent soluble in methanol, and 19 were dye-based inks, which are soluble in methanol. They applied Raman spectroscopy to the 36 pigmented blue gel inks. Raman spectroscopy is a non-destructive technique. Spectra were first obtained using the 514.5 nm argon ion laser which proved the observation of 4 different groups. They then used the 830 nm NIR diode laser and divided the inks into three groups. They then combined the two lasers and a separation into 5 groups was obtained. They then attempted to identify the pigments contained in the gel by comparison to standard pigments. Two main pigments were detected in the analysed samples: PB15 and PV23. PB 15 is pigment blue 15 and belongs to the class of phthalocyanines. PV23 is the pigment violet 23 and belongs to the class oxazines. The argon laser allowed the detection of a mixture of PB 15 and PV 23. This was a better result than using the NIR diode laser. The results showed that the same gel pen ink (same model and brand) from different geographical locations showed the same Raman spectra. However, it was stated that the Raman technique obtained low discriminating values. 2. Materials and Method 2.1 Materials: Blue ballpoint pens Merck silica gel 60 TLC plates (20 cm x 20 cm) Methanol Ethyl acetate Ethanol (absolute) Paper Dessicator Developing chamber Puncher Glass tubes (0.1 ml) Capillary tubes 2.2 Experimental 13 blue ball-point pens (Table 1) were bought from a number of different shops in the town. A circle with a diameter of 5mm was written by the pen on paper. One fourth of it was punched out for extraction. The samples are placed in 1 ml glass tubes. 0.1ml of methanol was added and vigorously shaken for 1 min. The ink component was fully dissolved in methanol. The supernatant methanoic solutions were used for spot application on TLC plate. A blank of paper only is also treated as was a control which was a permanent marker. TLC analyses were preformed using Alugram 20 cm x 10 cm silica gel/UV plates (Macherey-Nagel). The plates were activated at 60 °C for 20 min and immediately after, cooled in a desiccator, and spotted. The plates were developed in a horizontal developing chamber. The solvent system included: ethyl acetate/absolute ethanol/ distilled water (70:35:30, v/v/v). Development was preformed at room temperature for 40 min. All mobile phases were prepared daily. After develo pment the plates were air-dried. All 13 different pens were tested in triplicate. Retention factors were calculated using the results from the plates and photographs taken using a digital camera were loaded onto the computer and analysed using image analysis software. Table 1: List of pens analysed Number Description 1 No Brand (blue) 2 Pilot G-207 3 BIC ReAction 4 BIC Medium (Bought in Tesco) 5 BIC Medium (Bought in Dunnes) 6 No Brand (Purple) 7 Staedtler Stick 430M 8 Roller Pen 9 Papermate 1.2M 10 Scripto Stick Pen 11 Papermate Write Bros. 12 Comfort Touch 13 No Brand (Tesco Click Pen) 3. Results and Discussion Before carrying out the experiment it needed to be researched. This research pointed out the importance of the correct solvent to remove the ink from the document. Djozan et al used methanol as their choice of solvent after considering other solvents (Table 2). They stated that Pyridine was the reported solvent used with ball-point pen inks. However, they carried out extractions with different solvents using various extraction modes. They realised that immersion of the paper into methanol with agitation resulted in complete extraction of the inks from the paper. Methanol was also chosen because of its safety. Table 2: List of solvents used for the extraction of ink components from paper Solvent Solubility of ink colours Ethyl acetate Slightly Ethanol Slightly Acetic Acid Slightly Acetone Slightly Butanol Slightly 1,2-Dichloroethane Slightly Butyl acetate Slightly Tetrachloroethane Slightly Acethyl acetate Slightly Cyclohexan Slightly Methanol Soluble Oyridine Soluble Different concentrations of the solvent system (Table 3) were analysed to see which gave the greater separation. It was found that the concentration given by Djozan et al, (ethyl acetate, ethanol, and water (70:35:30, v/v/v)) gave the best results. The Alugram silica Gell/UV plates were also found to work better than the suggested, Merck silica gel 60, plates without fluorescent indicator. Table 3: Concentrations of solvent system investigated Number Solvent system 1 ethyl acetate, ethanol, water (70:35:30, v/v/v) 2 ethyl acetate, ethanol, water (70:30:35, v/v/v) 3 ethyl acetate, ethanol, water (70:25:40, v/v/v) 4 ethyl acetate, ethanol, water (70:40:25, v/v/v) Table 4: Retention factors for all separated components pen spot 1 spot 2 spot 3 spot 4 spot 5 Solvent RF1 RF2 RF3 RF4 RF5 1.1 70 73 0.958904 1.2 70 73 0.958904 1.2 70 73 0.958904 2.1 62 69 73 0.849315 81.24194 2.2 62 69 73 0.849315 81.24194 2.3 62 69 73 0.849315 81.24194 3.1 57 60 62 70 0.814286

Managing Effective Work Teams Essay -- Research Papers Work Essays

Managing Effective Work Teams Abstract Many organizations today believe that the use of work teams will allow them to produce better products and provide better services, faster, and at lower costs. Using a work team approach can reinvigorate productivity and service provider motivation, and better position an organization to deal with a rapidly changing environment. However establishing effective work teams is not something that comes easy. Though, the benefits of effective work teams within an organization are very substantial, it takes alot of hard work and dedication on the part of management and team members to develop, implement and maintain effective work teams. Work Team's Popularity in Organizations Some twenty years ago when organizations introduced work teams, they made the news because no one else was using teams. Today, it's almost the opposite. Companies that don't use some form of team approach in conducting business are those that attract attention. Look into almost any business magazine and you will see how teams have become an essential part of the way work is done in companies such as Honeywell, General Electric, Saab, John Deere, Honda, Boeing and Federal Express. One might ask, why is this? Research suggests that a team can usually outperform an individual. Especially, when the tasks being done requires multiple skills, judgment and experience. Also, as organizations restructure themselves to compete more effectively and efficiently, they have learned that teams are a better way to utilize employee talents. Management too, has found that work teams are more flexible and responsive to a changing environment than traditional departments or other forms of permanent work groups. In many situat... ...re to become effective managers in the field public administration or business, can do no wrong in subscribing to the management practice of managing effective work teams. References Cynthia Cantu, University of North Texas, Virtual Teams, 1998 http://www.workteams.unt.edu/reports/cantu.html , page 1 & 2 Greg Hendrix, UNT, The Importance of Goals To The Success of Work Teams, 1998 http://www.workteams.unt.edu/reports/ghendrix.html , page 1 Carole A. Townsley, UNT, Resolving Conflict In Work Teams, 1998 http://www.workteams.unt.edu/reports/townsley.html , page 1 & 4 Angelique Lee, UNT, Team Compensation: A Broad Overview, Nov. 24, 1997 http://www.workteams.unt.edu/reports/lee.html, page 1 Sarah L. Bodner, UNT, Experiential Training: A Stepping For Work Teams, Nov. 24, 1997 http://www.workteams.unt.edu/reports/bodner.html, page 1, 5, 7, 8, 9

Importance of a Warm Up Essay

A warm up helps to prepare the body for the physical exertion to come. It gently raises your pulse rate and therefore, your cardiac output increases and also your rate of ventilation. Your vasomotor centre makes sure that more blood is being distributed to the working muscles. This combined affect is to increase the amount of oxygen that is delivered to the muscle cells. This helps to reduce the oxygen deficit when you start carrying out the actual activity. A Warm up is very important as it helps to reduce the possible chances of injury. It raises your body temperature in your muscles as there is an increase in the blood flow which raises your body temperature in your muscles, making them more responsive. The elasticity of muscle tissue is increased and more oxygen can be carried to the working muscles. This will help to prepare the body for the activity to come. Throughout a warm up routine, it consists of stretching exercises and this increases your flexibility and so directly reduces the risk of injury. The reason for this is that; a muscle or tendon group with a greater range of motion will be less likely to experience tears when used actively. Stretching also helps to improve recovery and may enhance the participant’s performance. Additionally, increased flexibility of the neck, shoulders and upper back may improve respiratory function. The nervous system becomes stimulated which makes sure you more alert and aware and therefore it gets you psychologically prepared. This will help to increase your levels of motivation and determination to carry out your dance sessions. The benefit of a warm up is that the muscles torn most frequently from the neglect of a warm up are the antagonists (such as the hamstrings- Semimembranosus, Semitendinosus, biceps femoris) to the strong contracting muscles (such as the Quadriceps- Vastus medialis, Vastus lateralis, Vastus intermedius, rectus femoris). Cold antagonistic muscles relax slowly when the agonists contract, therefore free movement and accurate co-ordination is retarded. At the same time, the force of the contraction of the agonists and the momentum of the moving part exert a great strain on the unyielding antagonists. Without a warm up, this may lead to the tearing of the muscle fibers or the tendons. Stretching exercises I will stretch, moving a joint to just beyond its point of resistance. Flexibility is limited by the joint itself, ligaments and tendons acting upon it. I cannot change the bony structures or the type of joint, but I can stretch the soft tissue surrounding the joint. Neck (Sternocleidomastoid and scalenes) * Turn head to the left, then to the right. * Look up and then down. * 5 Neck rolls to the right and then 5 neck rolls to the left. * Shoulders, back and arms * I will Circle arms 10 times forward, 10 times backward and then rotate arms alternating. This will mobilise my shoulder joint. * I will Stretch my Trapezius by pulling one arm that is kept straight across the chest with your other arm supporting it in its position. This is a horizontal flexion movement. * I will stretch my triceps brachii by flexing my elbow and placing my hand behind my head on by back and my other hand puts pressure on the flexed elbow joint. Wrists and fingers * I will rotate my wrist joints, clap my hands together rapidly and then bend and mobilise my fingers. Hips * I will mobilise my hip joint by placing my hands on my hips and doing 5 hip rotations to the left and then 5 to right. Rotate my hips by raising my leg (with a bent knee so it is at 90 degrees to my body) then I will turn my leg outwards to the side of my body. Spine * I will stretch my vertebral column by crouching down onto my knees and placing my hands on the floor reaching as far as I can. Legs * I will Stretch the Vastus Lateralis, Vastus Intermedials, Vastus Medialis and Rectus Femoris by pulling the ankle with your hand on the same side of the body keeping the knees together while maintaining the correct spine alignment. My hips should be square (I will make sure they do not twist.) If I find it difficult to keep my balance I will hold onto my ear with my other hand and focus. * I will stretch the Semitendinosus, Biceps Femoris and Semi Membranosus by placing one foot in front of the other; bend your back knee while keeping my front leg straight. Raise the hips and lean your body slightly over. After holding this stretch for 10-15 seconds, I will slowly raise the toes of my front foot so that they point towards the ceiling (I will keep my heel firmly on the ground.) Doing this will produce a full stretch down the back of the leg, i.e. Semitendinosus, Biceps Femoris, Semi Membranosus and Gastrocnemius. * I will move my legs apart (wide stance), I will then bend forwards with my hands flat to floor. * Right foot behind left at 90 degrees right leg flexed, left leg straight, bend forward to left foot. Left foot behind left at 90 degrees left leg flexed, right leg straight, bend forward to right foot. * To stretch the Adductors Longus, Brevis and Magnus both feet will be flat on the floor and facing forward. I will lean over to one side keeping the other leg straight, bend the knee at the side you are leaning over to increase the intensity of the stretch. * To stretch my Gastrocnemius I will put one foot in front of the other and bend you’re your front knee. The back leg will be kept straight and the rear heel will be kept firmly on the floor throughout the stretch. This stretch is often carried out against a wall. The Gastrocnemius is stretched by flexing your elbows and moving your body weight forward. Stretch forward until you feel a gentle pull in the lower leg. * To stretch the Soleus, the front knee is bent and is pushed towards the ground, while staying over and just in front of the foot. A gentle pull should be felt in the lower one third of the leg. The knee can then be directed medially and laterally to stretch different areas. Ankles * To mobilise my ankle joint I will move the sole of the foot inwards (inversion) and then turn it outwards (eversion). * I will then move the foot downwards (away from the tibia) which is known as plantar flexion and then I will move it upwards (towards the tibia) and this is known as dorsi flexion. This mobilises the Tibialis Anterior, Gastrocnemius and Soleus.